Category Archives: Science

Science News (February 2024)

Plenty of science news and what’s even better is that it’s a good mix of groundbreaking stuff and plain cool stuff.

  • The groundbreaking research relates to the discovery of a new type of viruslike entity that inhabits bacteria found in the human mouth and gut. The team has called these new structures obelisks and they are composed of loops of RNA. Scientists have previously known of the existence of viroids, similar loops RNA without the exterior protein shell that are seen in viruses, in plants. But this is the first time that these structures have been found in the human body. What’s insane about this paper is that we’d long have thought that every part of the human anatomy has already been thoroughly examined and mapped, yet we’ve now found these previously unknown structures and have no idea what roles they play in our biology.
  • In more depressing news, this paper examines the long-term effects of bullying among school children. What’s particularly notable here is the sheer length of time that the data encompasses. It covers a cohort born in Britain in 1958 up to the age of 62. The findings however are sobering and they find even after so long, it is possible to detect negative subjective effects on those who were bullied as children, lowers their probability of holding a job as adults and adversely affected their mortality.
  • The next paper is included because of how similar the situation it presents is to a short story by science-fiction writer Greg Egan and so he even linked it! The experimenters attached a camera and microphone to a single child for a certain number of hours everyday to record everything the child could see and hear. They then used the data to train a neural net to better understand how children learn language and to see if the AI they built in this way could similarly learn how to associate words with visual references in the real world. I’m not sure if they learned anything other than the fact that this approach does work but it sure makes for something right out of science-fiction.
  • There are too many announcements in AI to keep up so I’ll focus only on scientific papers especially when they pertain to real-world situations. This paper compares the performance of LLMs against junior lawyers and outsourced workers on reviewing legal contracts. As expected, the LLMs aren’t as good as senior lawyers and may only be slightly better or similar in performance to junior lawyers. But there is no question that the LLMs do that job far faster and for a much cheaper, almost insignificant cost. The conclusion is that junior lawyers certainly are at great risk of being disrupted.
  • Finally we have this news of the discovery of the brightest object in the universe found to date. It is a quasar located about 12 billion light-years away, stretches about 7 light-years across and is more than 500 trillion times brighter than our own sun. It’s just superlative, barely comprehensible numbers across the board and the funny thing is that astronomers actually noticed it in images taken in 1980 but misclassified it as a star.

Science News (January 2024)

Not much in the way of science news for the first month of the year and I’ve decided to hold off on the more speculative announcements until they’re better supported.

  • First up in big picture news is the discovery of a cosmic megastructure, now called the Big Ring with a diameter of about 1.3 billion light years at a distance of more than 9 billion light years from Earth. It’s too faint to be seen with the naked eye of course but astronomers have been able to determine that it has something of a coil shape, aligned face-on with the Earth. This discovery joins a growing list of other megastructures and that poses a problem for our current understanding of the structure of the universe, that it is homogenous above a certain scale and looks identical in every direction. Either the scale must be redefined or we must admit that the universe has an overall structure after all.
  • Next is a development in particle physics that is applied to medicine. We all know about how radiation can be used to treat cancer as well as the problems of this approach. One obvious alternative is to use particles that dump a great deal of energy onto the targeted cancer cells and nowhere else in the body. This article talks about how protons beams can be used for treating cancer and how positron-emission tomography can be used to visualize and guide the proton beams. The difficulty is that the protons are very short-lived isotopes and so must be produced on-site using a cyclotron.
  • In Ecuador, archaeologists have discovered a huge ancient city lost underneath the jungles of the Amazon. Using both ground excavations and LiDAR imaging, they claim to have found plazas and houses connected by a network of roads and canals, with a population in the tens of thousands at least. The city was built around 2,500 years ago and people were living there up to about 1,000 years ago. If this pans out, this could mean the discovery of a completely unknown ancient civilization completely separate from the better known Mayan civilizations of Mexico and Central America.
  • Finally here a preprint paper detailing some observed trends in head size among humans and brain health. Using data from people born between 1902 and 1985 and controlling for many factors, they found that head sizes have been growing and memory performance has been improving over time. The authors believe that this is caused by early life environmental factors, better nutrition, better health and so on but there’s no telling really. It would be interesting to observe how long this trend can hold.

Science Articles (December 2023)

We have a wealth of cool science announcement to round off the year with.

  • We’ll start with the announcement about how two separate teams have successfully entangled pairs of calcium monofluoride molecules. This is exciting in the context of quantum computing in which the basic unit of computing is a qubit. The question is what do we make qubits out of, physically? This is the first time that a qubit has been constructed out of pairs of single molecules and will for obvious reasons make it much more feasible to scale a quantum computer to a useful level. Of course so far this news is only about creating the entangled pairs which is a long way from an actual quantum computer.
  • Next is a product that I’d actually want to use myself if it really works. A new company claims that they have a modified strain of bacteria that when introduced into a person’s mouth, will eventually outcompete the other native bacteria, making it the dominant strain in your oral microbiome. What makes their strain different is that it lacks the gene to create lactic acid from breaking down sugars and it is this acid that breaks down tooth enamel and causes cavities. Their version breaks down sugars into a small amount of alcohol instead. Theoretically a single application would last a lifetime and significantly reduce or perhaps even negate the need to brush teeth or visit a dentist. Incredibly the science behind it has been known since 2000 but it has never been made commercially available to the general public. The usual caution applies in that all this is claimed by the company itself and will need to be independently verified.
  • Next are a couple of papers in the field of AI. The first of these describe an autonomous laboratory that successfully synthesized novel materials, specifically inorganic powders. The platform integrates machine learning models to propose synthesis recipes to attempt, a robotic laboratory that carries out the recipe, and characterization of the result through X-ray diffraction. When the recipe fails, the system is able to propose improved follow-up recipes to try. The system was able to create 41 novel compounds over 17 days of continuous operation. I’m sure how useful these novel compounds are or how this compares to the productive output of traditional laboratories staffed by humans. But it’s proof that AI-led scientific development is a real thing.
  • The other one is a deep dive into a research project by Anthropic to understand what actually goes on inside a neural network. As we all know, these networks are essentially black boxes. We feed it an input and we get an output but it’s impossible to understand how it arrived at that output. So Anthropic built a very small and simple network and with the help of another network built an interface to understand and break down the first network into its smallest components. In particular, the smallest component isn’t a single neuron because the activation of a given neuron might have a specific meaning but that same neuron activated in combination with some others might mean something else entirely. The paper really only for the experts but it’s a fascinating attempt at looking inside the black box.
  • Finally we end with a weird bit of science news to prove that reality is crazier than the imagination of any science-fiction writer. This article talks about the Japanese green syllid worm, a species that reproduces through a process called stolonization. This means that its rear end, or butt, can detach from the main body to swim away and seek out other detached rear ends from other worms to mate with. To make this possible, the rear end of the worm has its own set of eyes, antennae and a simple brain. The article goes on about the genes that regulate the development of this strange organism and speculate that at some point in its evolution, it started to develop a second head further down its body leading to this form of reproduction.

Science Articles (November 2023)

A few interesting bits of news this month but nothing truly groundbreaking. I am happy that there are articles from different fields though.

  • The first one delves into the currently hot field of AI and it’s actually about two things. On one level, it’s about training neural networks to make predictions about rogue waves, monster-sized waves that are much larger than expected. One another level, it’s about making the model comprehensible to humans instead of being a black box. This involved taking the particular neural network that produced the most accurate predictions, then using a separate algorithm to generate equations that match its results as closely as possible based on the variables that it uses. So this is not only a practical method of predicting rogue waves but also represents a novel way to make sense of the results of neural networks.
  • Next is an announcement of very promising results from a project to stop the spread of dengue by infecting mosquitoes with the Wolbachia bacteria. Such mosquitoes are known to have a reduced ability to spread disease and indeed studies of areas where these special mosquitoes have been released in Colombia show reductions of dengue infections of up to 97%. There are concerns about how safe this is, that it’s expensive and that the pathogens may in time find ways to adapt to the Wolbachia dengue but this is still good news.
  • The next article is somewhat similar in that it’s as much about the general approach as the specific results. The broader problem is how do you carry out placebo-controlled trials of substances whose effects patients are aware of if they are present. The substance in question here is ketamine which is thought to have antidepressive properties, yet its psychoactive effects makes it impossible for those dosed to be unaware of it. This experiment therefore involved patients who were undergoing routine surgery. Under the effects of anesthesia, they were given either ketamine or a saline placebo and being unconscious, would not have been aware of the difference. The outcome was assessed during follow-up visits. Unfortunately they found that the ketamine had no greater effect than the placebo in reducing the severity of depressive symptoms but their approach at least is novel.
  • Finally, here’s an economics paper that is sure to generate a great deal of follow-up discussion. It challenges the conventional view that income inequality in the US has gone up over time. The claim here is that such views are based on estimates of income shares that are derived from individual tax returns. However this leaves out government transfers, changes in social conditions and demographics. College education for example raises lifetime income but delays entry into the labor market. Adjusting for all these factors, the author claims that real incomes have risen over time for all income groups and there has been little change in the share of income that goes to the richest. The author works for the US Treasury Department so the claims here aren’t so easily dismissed.

Science Articles (October 2023)

On top of the Nobel Prize announcements this month, there’s been plenty of cool new science news as well, so let’s get to them.

  • My favorite of the lot is the recent breakthrough in reading papyrus scrolls recovered from the ruins of a Roman villa in Campania. The villa was destroyed by the famous Mount Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD and was actually discovered back in the 1750s. Researchers back then tried to unroll the carbonized scrolls but ended up destroying many of them. Flash forward to the present day and we can now virtually unroll the scrolls by scanning them, layer by layer, with a computerised tomography x-ray machine. The latest twist is using machine learning to decipher the resulting images and iterating until recognizable letters can be read from them. This marks only the beginning of what will undoubtedly be a massive effort to read the more than 500 scrolls that still survive and will provide new primary sources for classicists to pore over for decades to come.
  • More controversial is a new paper discussing the causes of the decline in the mental health of children. The central idea is that the decline is caused by a corresponding decline in children having unsupervised, independent activity of their own, that is playing by themselves or with friends, or even doing part-time jobs without the involvement of family members. It seems indisputable that children did have more independent activity in the past and that their mental health is declining but the evidence that one causes causes the other seems circumstantial. It does make for a good story and that’s why so many people are talking about this paper so be on the lookout for new developments in this area.
  • On a lighter note, here’s an article about how coin tosses aren’t exactly 50/5 after all. The issue is that when a coin is tossed by a human hand into the air, there is always a tiny wobble in it. Due to this, the coin has slightly better odds of landing on the same side it started. The difference is small, from a sample of 350,757 coin flips, 50.8% of them ended up on the same side, and it depends on the individual. Given that coin tosses are sometimes used for some significant events, such as in sports, this may actually be an important finding.
  • Finally here’s a broad overview on assembly theory, a neat idea that has been making the rounds. It really is an idea more than a theory as it doesn’t exactly offer testable predictions. The core of it comes from wondering why complex molecules exist and persist. They must have been made by some repeatable process and allows them to replicate. We’re all familiar with Darwinian selection but these processes take place on an even more fundamental scale without anything resembling DNA or RNA. They’ve come up with a way of calculating the complexity of objects based on the minimum number of steps that are needed to create it from its constituent parts which they call the Assembly Index. This could be useful to detect the presence of life which aren’t based on the same chemical building blocks as Earth-based life. Again, I don’t think this is science but it’s cool to learn and think about.

Nobel Prizes 2023

Last year, everyone expected the prize for physiology or medicine to a specific winner but that prediction failed to pan out. That is rectified this year as the prize goes to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that make mRNA vaccines possible. Such vaccines are an obvious idea but it proved difficult to be made in practice as the production of mRNA without cell culture, called in vitro transcription led to mRNA that causes inflammatory responses.

Karikó and Weissman knew that the bases in RNA from mammalian cells are frequently chemically modified while in vitro transcribed mRNA is not. So they produced different variants of mRNA with unique chemical alterations in their bases and discovered that this change did indeed almost completely abolish the unwanted inflammatory response, making mRNA vaccines viable.

The physics prize is for attosecond physics and is pretty easy to understand as well. An attosecond is a billionth of a billionth of a second and this is the scale that we need to use to examine the movements and reactions of electrons. The prize goes to Anne L’Huillier, Pierre Agostini and Ferenc Krausz. L’Huillier discovered that when an infrared laser passes through a noble gas, the laser imparts energy to the atoms that is then released as light. The light waves interact with one another so that when their peaks coincide, they would become more intense.

Agostini and Krausz, working independently, both turned this insight into workable technology to create pulses of light in the hundreds of attoseconds range. Today this has been further improved down to the dozens of attoseconds range and this is what allows us to see electrons in the same way that very fast camera shutters allows us to capture fast moving objects.

The prize for chemistry is for quantum dots and who would have thought that the marketing blurb for expensive televisions isn’t just bunk. Every high school student who has studied chemistry knows that the properties of an element are determined by how many electrons it has. However on a very small scale, the properties may be governed by quantum phenomena instead and this includes their colors which can vary depending on their size.

The prize goes to Alexei Ekimov, Louis Brus and Moungi Bawendi for making that knowledge work in practice. Ekimov first demonstrated the effect in colored glass, using nanoparticles of copper chloride. Brus later did it with particles floating freely in a fluid and Bawendi improved the process to produce the quantum dots to make it more reliable. The result that quantum dots today are a real thing that are used in computer monitors, television screens and many other applications.

Finally the prize for economics goes to Claudia Goldin for her work in investigating female participation in the labor market and explaining the gender gap in earnings. Trawling through 200 years of data, she showed that female labor did not have a continuously upward trend but instead forms a U-shape. Married women were heavily involved in labor in agrarian societies but worked less during the transition to an industrial society. With the rise of the service economy, female work is trending upwards again.

She also demonstrated how factors like women’s education levels, the invention of the contraceptive pill and having control over when a woman has her first child affect women’s earnings. One particularly interesting finding is in so-called greedy professions like the legal or financial industry which rewards those willing to put in extremely long and unpredictable hours with high pay. In many cases, families maximize their earnings by having the husband specialize in his career leaving the wife with all of the childcare duties while forsaking her own career.

Science News (September 2023)

Lots of cool stuff this month and I’m even cutting off breaking news that I’ll try to include next month.

  • I like to start off these posts with the news item that manages to hit the mainstream every month. This time it’s the news of a possible human population bottleneck about 900,000 years ago. This was achieved by projecting current human genetic variation backward in time to estimate past population sizes. This is understandably not a very reliable or precise technique but their estimate that the human population was reduced to around 1,300 breeding individuals at one point has enough shock value to made headlines around the world. Probably the more interesting discovery that the period coincides with a severe cooling phase in the planet’s climate, making it a salutary lesson on how critical it is for us to intelligently manage climate change today.
  • Using drugs to control obesity is the next big thing in medicine and there’s no doubting the impact that it could have on human health. This paper adds to the knowledge in that area, demonstrating how a specific group of neurons, GABRA5-positive neurons, in the lateral hypothalamic area of the brain help regulate food intake and thereby weight gain. By activating or suppressing these neurons, the researchers were able to control weight gain in model mice without affecting food intake. There’s understandably still a lot of reluctance against relying on drugs to control the obesity epidemic but I have no doubt that this will be mainstream soon.
  • We’re all familiar with the adage about opposites attracting and those mature enough should already know how untrue it is. This paper is a systematic review of peer-reviewed studies of male-female partners and their traits. The data shows that partners generally have high correlations in their personal traits whether in terms of political and religious attitudes, educational attainments and others, suggesting that such partnerships are more common and more stable.
  • Next here is a paper about intuition, specifically intuitive responses to problems that are wrong and yet are prove to be extremely difficult to correct. It discusses the bat and ball problem which involves calculating the costs of the two objects. The problem has an obvious, intuitive answer which is wrong and the correct answer must be arrived at through reflection. Despite increasingly severe warnings and even an explicit instruction that the obvious answer is wrong, many people still end up inputting the wrong answer.
  • Finally this paper discusses correlations between being patient and educational success. This by itself isn’t that revelatory but the technique the team used to determine patience seems novel. What they did was to mine data from social media to determine which types of interests are popular in different places and made their findings based on which interests are associated with the virtue of patience.